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The History of Chemistry

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Chemistry is everywhere, and involves everything. But how did chemistry get to be what it is? I'm Steve Cohen, a chemist and writer, bringing you The History of Chemistry. This podcast explores the development of chemistry from prehistoric times to the present, including the people and societies who made chemistry what it is today. The History of Chemistry is for you, whether you hated chemistry in high school, or got a PhD in inorganic chemistry. We'll explore how chemistry affected art, music, language, politics and vice-versa. Whether it's ancient Greek philosophers, medieval alchemists, or modern laboratory apparatus, it's all here. Don't forget to support my series at https://www.patreon.com/thehistoryofchemistry !
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Chemistry is everywhere, and involves everything. But how did chemistry get to be what it is? I'm Steve Cohen, a chemist and writer, bringing you The History of Chemistry. This podcast explores the development of chemistry from prehistoric times to the present, including the people and societies who made chemistry what it is today. The History of Chemistry is for you, whether you hated chemistry in high school, or got a PhD in inorganic chemistry. We'll explore how chemistry affected art, music, language, politics and vice-versa. Whether it's ancient Greek philosophers, medieval alchemists, or modern laboratory apparatus, it's all here. Don't forget to support my series at https://www.patreon.com/thehistoryofchemistry !
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Published 2024-08-25

135: Bond, Chemical Bond

22 min
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In which we consider what, really, is a chemical bond. Lewis and Langmuir promoted the idea that bonding was sharing of electron pairs. Then we hear about Slater, Hellman, and Ruedenberg's discussion of how covalent bonding works. Kossel and Lewis also introduced ionic bonding. Finally Drude and Lorentz offered metallic bonding. But there are more chemical bonds: the hydrogen bond, the halogen bond, the mechanical bond, the van der Waals force, multi-center bonds, and metallophilic bonds.

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In which we consider what, really, is a chemical bond. Lewis and Langmuir promoted the idea that bonding was sharing of electron pairs. Then we hear about Slater, Hellman, and Ruedenberg's discussion of how covalent bonding works. Kossel and Lewis also introduced ionic bonding. Finally Drude and Lorentz offered metallic bonding. But there are more chemical bonds: the hydrogen bond, the halogen bond, the mechanical bond, the van der Waals force, multi-center bonds, and metallophilic bonds.

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Published 2024-08-18

134: Atto-boy!

19 min
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In which we talk about the fastest spectroscopy yet, attosecond spectroscopy, which can resolve electrons moving around atoms. The topic begins with Christian Spielmann in 1997, working to get shorter and shorter laser pulses, and continues with Ferenc Krausz. We discuss what you might be able to inspect using these short light pulses, such as how the shape of atomic orbitals oscillates after ionization, how you can change the opacity of a substance for a brief moment, and fluctuations of water structure.

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In which we talk about the fastest spectroscopy yet, attosecond spectroscopy, which can resolve electrons moving around atoms. The topic begins with Christian Spielmann in 1997, working to get shorter and shorter laser pulses, and continues with Ferenc Krausz. We discuss what you might be able to inspect using these short light pulses, such as how the shape of atomic orbitals oscillates after ionization, how you can change the opacity of a substance for a brief moment, and fluctuations of water structure.

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Published 2024-08-11

133: A Horse of a Different Color

20 min
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Instead of molecules that absorb light based on their molecular orbitals, this episode talks of nanostructures and their materials that refract light based on interference of light waves. We start with Robert Hooke who described this process in his book Micrographia. We continue through Isaac Newton and Lord Rayleigh. We discuss Eli Yablonovitch's photonic crystals. We mention various kinds of natural structural colorants in the living and non-living worlds, from minerals to insects to bacteria to plants. Then we list several attempts to synthesize structural colorants, and why they might prove useful.

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Instead of molecules that absorb light based on their molecular orbitals, this episode talks of nanostructures and their materials that refract light based on interference of light waves. We start with Robert Hooke who described this process in his book Micrographia. We continue through Isaac Newton and Lord Rayleigh. We discuss Eli Yablonovitch's photonic crystals. We mention various kinds of natural structural colorants in the living and non-living worlds, from minerals to insects to bacteria to plants. Then we list several attempts to synthesize structural colorants, and why they might prove useful.

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Published 2024-08-04

132: Name Dropping

22 min
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This episode concerns the phenomenon in organic chemistry of classifying a set of similar reactions by a single umbrella name. Most named reactions honor a person, but not always. We discuss the early history of named reactions from the 1870s onward. We then talk about the slant of named reactions towards white men, and away from other people, and even whether that can be a problem for minority and women chemists. Patreon supporters may download a supplemental sheet that sketches some of the reactions I mention in the episode.

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This episode concerns the phenomenon in organic chemistry of classifying a set of similar reactions by a single umbrella name. Most named reactions honor a person, but not always. We discuss the early history of named reactions from the 1870s onward. We then talk about the slant of named reactions towards white men, and away from other people, and even whether that can be a problem for minority and women chemists. Patreon supporters may download a supplemental sheet that sketches some of the reactions I mention in the episode.

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Published 2024-07-28

131: From Fluor to Ceiling

22 min
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Polyfluoroalkyl substances, or PFAS, seem to be ubiquitous now in the environment and the news. In this episode I delve into why chemists found these compounds so fascinating and useful. Then I discuss some history of how the world finally learned how dangerous these compounds can be if used and disposed of improperly. Finally I talk of some possible methods chemists are currently researching on how to remove PFAS from the environment.

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Polyfluoroalkyl substances, or PFAS, seem to be ubiquitous now in the environment and the news. In this episode I delve into why chemists found these compounds so fascinating and useful. Then I discuss some history of how the world finally learned how dangerous these compounds can be if used and disposed of improperly. Finally I talk of some possible methods chemists are currently researching on how to remove PFAS from the environment.

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Published 2024-07-21

130: I Have an Axe to Grind

22 min
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Mechanochemistry, using purely mechanical processes to run a reaction, is much less known in the chemical world, but has been around since the ancient Greek Theophrastus described a mechanochemical process. We describe the history of mechanochemistry from then through its rediscovery by Michael Faraday, and the first systematic attempts to understand it by Mathew Carey Lea. He got into a dispute with Walthère Spring over "first rights" to publication. The 20th century was when mechanochemistry was examined in great detail, both in the Soviet Bloc and then by Westerners in the later part of the century. We talk of various topics in mechanochemistry.

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Mechanochemistry, using purely mechanical processes to run a reaction, is much less known in the chemical world, but has been around since the ancient Greek Theophrastus described a mechanochemical process. We describe the history of mechanochemistry from then through its rediscovery by Michael Faraday, and the first systematic attempts to understand it by Mathew Carey Lea. He got into a dispute with Walthère Spring over "first rights" to publication. The 20th century was when mechanochemistry was examined in great detail, both in the Soviet Bloc and then by Westerners in the later part of the century. We talk of various topics in mechanochemistry.

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Published 2024-07-14

129: Sheets and Giggles

21 min
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In which we learn of the history of graphite, its molecular structure, and electrical properties. Then we discuss the isolation of thinner and thinner layers of graphite through the mid-to-late 20th century. The first isolation of a single atomic layer of graphite, called graphene, was accomplished in 2004 by Andre Geim and Konstantin Novoselov, which set off a new flurry of chemical research, much like the discovery of buckminsterfullerene two decades earlier. Then we discuss the special properties of graphene, and what practical applications graphene has.

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In which we learn of the history of graphite, its molecular structure, and electrical properties. Then we discuss the isolation of thinner and thinner layers of graphite through the mid-to-late 20th century. The first isolation of a single atomic layer of graphite, called graphene, was accomplished in 2004 by Andre Geim and Konstantin Novoselov, which set off a new flurry of chemical research, much like the discovery of buckminsterfullerene two decades earlier. Then we discuss the special properties of graphene, and what practical applications graphene has.

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Published 2024-07-07

128: Heavy, Man, Heavy!

31 min
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With this episode, we complete our history of the discovery of the elements (up through writing this episode). We talk of elements 110 through 118, completing that row of the Periodic Table, and the various experiments that the major heavy-ion research facilities in Russia, Germany, the USA, and Japan, were doing. We begin to hear of collaboration between several groups as the difficulties of obtaining raw materials grow. The Joint Working Party, the final Decider for discovery, constantly intrudes to say "no, that's not good enough," till eventually it is.

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With this episode, we complete our history of the discovery of the elements (up through writing this episode). We talk of elements 110 through 118, completing that row of the Periodic Table, and the various experiments that the major heavy-ion research facilities in Russia, Germany, the USA, and Japan, were doing. We begin to hear of collaboration between several groups as the difficulties of obtaining raw materials grow. The Joint Working Party, the final Decider for discovery, constantly intrudes to say "no, that's not good enough," till eventually it is.

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Published 2024-06-30

127: Black is Beautiful

22 min
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In which we discuss the entry of People of Color into chemistry, mostly in the USA. We start with the first Black to get an Ph.D. in Chemistry in the USA, St. Elmo Brady, and work forward through the 1940s through the 1960s. We discuss various organizations to assist people of color in chemistry (and other sciences), such as NOBCChE, SACNAS, AISES, and the Society for Asian Scientists and Engineers. We examine a similar problem in the United Kingdom which has no independent assistance organization for People of Colour.

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In which we discuss the entry of People of Color into chemistry, mostly in the USA. We start with the first Black to get an Ph.D. in Chemistry in the USA, St. Elmo Brady, and work forward through the 1940s through the 1960s. We discuss various organizations to assist people of color in chemistry (and other sciences), such as NOBCChE, SACNAS, AISES, and the Society for Asian Scientists and Engineers. We examine a similar problem in the United Kingdom which has no independent assistance organization for People of Colour.

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Published 2024-06-23

126: Run of the Mill

22 min
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In which we talk of a huge problem currently plaguing chemistry (and science in general), the "paper mill," in which researchers pay to get their name attached to others' publications, or they write fraudulent publications and pay to get them in print. We hear of a Chinese firm discovered to be such a broker, possible reasons why chemists would fake research, and specific examples of chemical fraud. One insidious problem is faked crystallographic data on molecular structures, uploaded to repositories. Finally we learn of some ways to identify paper mills.

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In which we talk of a huge problem currently plaguing chemistry (and science in general), the "paper mill," in which researchers pay to get their name attached to others' publications, or they write fraudulent publications and pay to get them in print. We hear of a Chinese firm discovered to be such a broker, possible reasons why chemists would fake research, and specific examples of chemical fraud. One insidious problem is faked crystallographic data on molecular structures, uploaded to repositories. Finally we learn of some ways to identify paper mills.

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Published 2024-06-16

125: Das Model

23 min
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Here we discuss all sorts of kits chemists use to build models of different molecules. We start with the pre-molecule set built for John Dalton, and then we hear of August von Hofmann's set for lecture demonstrations. We talk of John Dewar's brass constructions, and then to Tinkertoy-like setups in the 20th century. Plastic first appears in molecular-model kits by the 1950s, and we continue through the later 20th-century. If you become a Patreon subscriber, you may download a supplemental sheet which shows some 20th-century kits, including a lecture demonstration kit I don't discuss in this episode!

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Here we discuss all sorts of kits chemists use to build models of different molecules. We start with the pre-molecule set built for John Dalton, and then we hear of August von Hofmann's set for lecture demonstrations. We talk of John Dewar's brass constructions, and then to Tinkertoy-like setups in the 20th century. Plastic first appears in molecular-model kits by the 1950s, and we continue through the later 20th-century. If you become a Patreon subscriber, you may download a supplemental sheet which shows some 20th-century kits, including a lecture demonstration kit I don't discuss in this episode!

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Published 2024-06-09

124: Lumen Large

20 min
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Our history of LEDs continues with the entry of LEDs into commercial lighting. We talk of different ways to get white light out of LEDs, and materials for white-light LEDs. We briefly discuss color temperature because there are different kinds of white. Then we hear of the publication of an article in 2000 that consolidated thinking about home usage for LEDs, and why LEDs have advantages over other lamps. We mention ways geometrically to optimize LED construction to maximize the amount of light emitted. Finally, we note the development of second-generation emitting compounds in red, green, and blue that pushed LEDs over the finish line to make them practical for home usage.

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Our history of LEDs continues with the entry of LEDs into commercial lighting. We talk of different ways to get white light out of LEDs, and materials for white-light LEDs. We briefly discuss color temperature because there are different kinds of white. Then we hear of the publication of an article in 2000 that consolidated thinking about home usage for LEDs, and why LEDs have advantages over other lamps. We mention ways geometrically to optimize LED construction to maximize the amount of light emitted. Finally, we note the development of second-generation emitting compounds in red, green, and blue that pushed LEDs over the finish line to make them practical for home usage.

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Published 2024-06-02

123: Setting the Ground Rules

21 min
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This episode gives a basic review of geochemistry, starting with pioneers such as Christian Friedrich Schönbein, Frank Wigglesworth Clarke, and thence into the 20th century, especially Victor Goldschmidt. We hear about the development of geochemical societies around the world, then we talk about various subfields of geochemistry. The question of "what's inside the Earth" is still a very active one, and we discuss ways to simulate the pressure inside the Earth, and likely constituents of the Earth's core.

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This episode gives a basic review of geochemistry, starting with pioneers such as Christian Friedrich Schönbein, Frank Wigglesworth Clarke, and thence into the 20th century, especially Victor Goldschmidt. We hear about the development of geochemical societies around the world, then we talk about various subfields of geochemistry. The question of "what's inside the Earth" is still a very active one, and we discuss ways to simulate the pressure inside the Earth, and likely constituents of the Earth's core.

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Published 2024-05-26

122: Catch the 'Wave

20 min
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Even though the potential for using microwaves to do chemistry was there since 1946, it wasn't until the late 1970s that the first use of microwaves in the chemistry laboratory appeared. This episode covers the development of microwave chemistry from moisture analyzers to significant study of reactions, and then finally laboratory-standard microwave ovens appeared. We mention the controversy between Gregory Dudley and Oliver Kappe as to whether there were some special properties of microwaves that made reactions speed up. We talk of the reasons that chemists now preferentially zap their reactants with microwaves over traditional chemical methods.

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Even though the potential for using microwaves to do chemistry was there since 1946, it wasn't until the late 1970s that the first use of microwaves in the chemistry laboratory appeared. This episode covers the development of microwave chemistry from moisture analyzers to significant study of reactions, and then finally laboratory-standard microwave ovens appeared. We mention the controversy between Gregory Dudley and Oliver Kappe as to whether there were some special properties of microwaves that made reactions speed up. We talk of the reasons that chemists now preferentially zap their reactants with microwaves over traditional chemical methods.

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Published 2024-05-19

121: Let the Sun Shine in

21 min
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We talk about perovskite minerals and compounds, their discovery, and general crystal structure. Then we learn about how researchers gradually learned about their interesting electrical and optical properties. We hear of Tsutomu Miyasaka’s paper about building a solar cell using these perovskite minerals, and the sudden interest in making commercial, practical solar cells from perovskites. We delve briefly into the electronic orbitals in perovskites, the engineering aspects of building photovoltaic cells with them, and how their efficiency in generating electrical current has soared since they were first invented.

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We talk about perovskite minerals and compounds, their discovery, and general crystal structure. Then we learn about how researchers gradually learned about their interesting electrical and optical properties. We hear of Tsutomu Miyasaka’s paper about building a solar cell using these perovskite minerals, and the sudden interest in making commercial, practical solar cells from perovskites. We delve briefly into the electronic orbitals in perovskites, the engineering aspects of building photovoltaic cells with them, and how their efficiency in generating electrical current has soared since they were first invented.

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Published 2024-05-12

120: Snap Judgement

20 min
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Click Chemistry came about as several researchers came to similar conclusions in parallel, but from different angles: Barry Sharpless, Morten Meldahl, and Carolyn Bertozzi. We hear about their research goals in the 1990s and early 2000s: to snap together smaller molecules in a reliable way, perhaps with pharmaceutical or biological experiments and results in mind. We learn of Sharpless's goals for Click Chemistry, which sometimes overlap with Green Chemistry.

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Click Chemistry came about as several researchers came to similar conclusions in parallel, but from different angles: Barry Sharpless, Morten Meldahl, and Carolyn Bertozzi. We hear about their research goals in the 1990s and early 2000s: to snap together smaller molecules in a reliable way, perhaps with pharmaceutical or biological experiments and results in mind. We learn of Sharpless's goals for Click Chemistry, which sometimes overlap with Green Chemistry.

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Published 2024-05-05

119: Tiny but Mighty

21 min
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We reach the point in our chemical history when microplastics were first recognized as a pervasive environmental pollutant. Visible plastic bits were first found by Edward Carpenter and K.L. Smith in the ocean back in 1972, and such detritus was confirmed all over the world's oceans over the next decades, resulting in the name "Eastern Garbage Patch" by 1997. Yet only in 2004 did Richard Thompson first study microscopic bits of plastic. In this episode we define a microplastic, and discuss various sources for microplastics. We talk of potential harm they do.

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We reach the point in our chemical history when microplastics were first recognized as a pervasive environmental pollutant. Visible plastic bits were first found by Edward Carpenter and K.L. Smith in the ocean back in 1972, and such detritus was confirmed all over the world's oceans over the next decades, resulting in the name "Eastern Garbage Patch" by 1997. Yet only in 2004 did Richard Thompson first study microscopic bits of plastic. In this episode we define a microplastic, and discuss various sources for microplastics. We talk of potential harm they do.

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Published 2024-04-28

118: Hold Tight, Stick Tight

24 min
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This episode deals with glues and adhesives, from prehistoric times to the present. We talk of prehistoric glue from tree saps, petroleum tar, animal glues, casein glues, albumin glues, and starch glues, all known in ancient times. Medieval knowledge added fish glue, and by the Renaissance we start industrial-scale adhesive factories. The 19th century brought rubber cement, mucilage, and library paste. We talk of 20th-century products like white glue, epoxy, polyurethane glues, super glues, glue guns, glue sticks, and even Post-It Notes.

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This episode deals with glues and adhesives, from prehistoric times to the present. We talk of prehistoric glue from tree saps, petroleum tar, animal glues, casein glues, albumin glues, and starch glues, all known in ancient times. Medieval knowledge added fish glue, and by the Renaissance we start industrial-scale adhesive factories. The 19th century brought rubber cement, mucilage, and library paste. We talk of 20th-century products like white glue, epoxy, polyurethane glues, super glues, glue guns, glue sticks, and even Post-It Notes.

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Published 2024-04-21

117: The Set Table

23 min
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The Periodic Table we've all seen in chemistry books and classes is not always the way it was, nor the way it must always be. In this episode we explore all kinds of periodic representations of the properties of elements, from Mendeleev's first published table in 1869, through wide and narrow tables, and spirals. There are even three-dimensional "tables," from helices to submarines, corners of walls, globes, pyramids, and tiles. My Patreon subscribers can download a supplemental sheet with a few samples of periodic tables which I discuss.

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The Periodic Table we've all seen in chemistry books and classes is not always the way it was, nor the way it must always be. In this episode we explore all kinds of periodic representations of the properties of elements, from Mendeleev's first published table in 1869, through wide and narrow tables, and spirals. There are even three-dimensional "tables," from helices to submarines, corners of walls, globes, pyramids, and tiles. My Patreon subscribers can download a supplemental sheet with a few samples of periodic tables which I discuss.

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Published 2024-04-14

116: Open Frame of Mind

19 min
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We introduce the first chemical construction set in chemistry (besides natural proteins, starches, sugars, etc.), the metal-organic framework. A DuPont employee, E.A. Tomic, invented this type of molecule in the 1960s, but it took until Omar Yaghi's research in 1990s until chemists realized the value of metal-organic frameworks. We discuss the experiments and results leading up to Yaghi's work, what these frameworks are, their value in science and industry, and their nearly infinite flexibility to create porous materials.

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We introduce the first chemical construction set in chemistry (besides natural proteins, starches, sugars, etc.), the metal-organic framework. A DuPont employee, E.A. Tomic, invented this type of molecule in the 1960s, but it took until Omar Yaghi's research in 1990s until chemists realized the value of metal-organic frameworks. We discuss the experiments and results leading up to Yaghi's work, what these frameworks are, their value in science and industry, and their nearly infinite flexibility to create porous materials.

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Published 2024-04-08

115: Reach for the Stars

22 min
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In this episode we talk about astrochemistry, which began in the 20th century. The first detection of molecules outside our solar system began with Theodore Dunham, which was finally recognized as a molecule in 1940. We talk of Gerhard Herzberg, Polydore Swings, and Dirk ter Haar, then meet Lyman Spitzer. Radio astronomy then became important in the 1960s and 1970s, allowing astrochemists to identify molecules based on quantum transitions at longer and longer wavelengths. We discuss the limited number of important elements for astrochemistry; the ever-growing number, size, and complexity of interstellar molecules detected, some ways they are formed, and end with some planetary chemistry.

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In this episode we talk about astrochemistry, which began in the 20th century. The first detection of molecules outside our solar system began with Theodore Dunham, which was finally recognized as a molecule in 1940. We talk of Gerhard Herzberg, Polydore Swings, and Dirk ter Haar, then meet Lyman Spitzer. Radio astronomy then became important in the 1960s and 1970s, allowing astrochemists to identify molecules based on quantum transitions at longer and longer wavelengths. We discuss the limited number of important elements for astrochemistry; the ever-growing number, size, and complexity of interstellar molecules detected, some ways they are formed, and end with some planetary chemistry.

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Published 2024-04-01

114: We Can Work It Out

22 min
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Here we talk of the first real molecular machines of the 1990s, and the chemistry advances required to invent them. We define what such a machine is, and reach back into organic chemistry of the 1940s and 1950s for "conformational analysis." We recall the Bell Labs chemists Harry Frisch and Edel Wasserman, and their foundation of chemical topology. Gottfried Schill, Arthur Lüttringhaus, plus Ian and Shuyen Harrison, synthesized interesting mechanical compounds. Through the 1970s and 1980s, chemists continued to advance molecular components of machines, and by the 1990s, the first true molecular machines (aside from existing biomolecules) were created.

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Here we talk of the first real molecular machines of the 1990s, and the chemistry advances required to invent them. We define what such a machine is, and reach back into organic chemistry of the 1940s and 1950s for "conformational analysis." We recall the Bell Labs chemists Harry Frisch and Edel Wasserman, and their foundation of chemical topology. Gottfried Schill, Arthur Lüttringhaus, plus Ian and Shuyen Harrison, synthesized interesting mechanical compounds. Through the 1970s and 1980s, chemists continued to advance molecular components of machines, and by the 1990s, the first true molecular machines (aside from existing biomolecules) were created.

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Published 2024-03-24

113: Ready Set Go

24 min
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On a topic that's a little different, here is an episode about chemistry sets. We explore their origins in Germany as portable laboratories in the late 1600s. Johann Fredrich August Göttling's portable laboratory might be considered the first true chemistry set as an amusement rather than solely a carry-along lab. Our story continues in Britain through the 19th century, and then in the USA during the 20th century. We examine the sexism in marketing of these kits, and the demise of the chemistry set in the later 20th century as a result of legal liabilities. My Patreon supporters can download a supplemental sheet with images of some of the topics I describe.

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On a topic that's a little different, here is an episode about chemistry sets. We explore their origins in Germany as portable laboratories in the late 1600s. Johann Fredrich August Göttling's portable laboratory might be considered the first true chemistry set as an amusement rather than solely a carry-along lab. Our story continues in Britain through the 19th century, and then in the USA during the 20th century. We examine the sexism in marketing of these kits, and the demise of the chemistry set in the later 20th century as a result of legal liabilities. My Patreon supporters can download a supplemental sheet with images of some of the topics I describe.

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Published 2024-03-17

112: Connect the Dots

19 min
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Here we discuss the discovery of quantum dots, those small particles hovering between molecule-size and macroscopic-size. We begin with physicist and refugee from Nazis Herbert Fröhlich, whose predictions led the way in the 1930s. Among the researchers we encounter are Aleksei Yekimov, Louis Brus, and Moungi Bawendi. Quantum dots were real, but could they be made reliably of specific sizes? The answer turned out to be yes, but you have to carefully control the conditions to make them.

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Here we discuss the discovery of quantum dots, those small particles hovering between molecule-size and macroscopic-size. We begin with physicist and refugee from Nazis Herbert Fröhlich, whose predictions led the way in the 1930s. Among the researchers we encounter are Aleksei Yekimov, Louis Brus, and Moungi Bawendi. Quantum dots were real, but could they be made reliably of specific sizes? The answer turned out to be yes, but you have to carefully control the conditions to make them.

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Published 2024-03-10

111: O Say Can You See

20 min
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We return to the history of light-emitting diodes, LEDs, but now talk about the development of organic versions, OLEDs, from the secret work of Roger Partridge to the now classic publication by Ching Tang and Steven Vanslyke at Eastman Kodak. Through the 1990s, more and more colors were added, so by the mid-1990s, the first commercial OLED product was marketed by electronics firm Pioneer. We also distinguish between passive and active matrix OLEDs.

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We return to the history of light-emitting diodes, LEDs, but now talk about the development of organic versions, OLEDs, from the secret work of Roger Partridge to the now classic publication by Ching Tang and Steven Vanslyke at Eastman Kodak. Through the 1990s, more and more colors were added, so by the mid-1990s, the first commercial OLED product was marketed by electronics firm Pioneer. We also distinguish between passive and active matrix OLEDs.

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Published 2024-03-03

110: Rattle My Cage

20 min
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After chemists discovered the soccer-ball molecule, buckminsterfullerene, and its siblings--could they do chemistry with it? We explore putting atoms and small molecules inside the ball. Then we discuss attaching atoms and molecules on the outside of the cage itself. We talk of futuristic uses for fullerene chemistry. We even mention sliding fullerenes inside a single-wall carbon nanotube.

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After chemists discovered the soccer-ball molecule, buckminsterfullerene, and its siblings--could they do chemistry with it? We explore putting atoms and small molecules inside the ball. Then we discuss attaching atoms and molecules on the outside of the cage itself. We talk of futuristic uses for fullerene chemistry. We even mention sliding fullerenes inside a single-wall carbon nanotube.

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Published 2024-02-25

109: Bon Appetit

20 min
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This episode deals with the field of molecular gastronomy, founded in the late 1980s and grew in the 1990s, under the leadership of Nicholas Kurti and Hervé This. We explore what molecular gastronomy researches and promotes, its goals, but also its controversies.

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This episode deals with the field of molecular gastronomy, founded in the late 1980s and grew in the 1990s, under the leadership of Nicholas Kurti and Hervé This. We explore what molecular gastronomy researches and promotes, its goals, but also its controversies.

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Published 2024-02-18

108: Fuel Transformation

21 min
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In which I discuss my Dear Wife's doctoral dissertation, which deals with converting hydrocarbon fuel (say, methane) into a liquid (say, methanol) for much easier transportation from source to need. We dig into many details of experimentation, laboratory equipment, and even an unexpected side reaction. This was and is a popular topic among organometallic chemists since the 1980s.

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In which I discuss my Dear Wife's doctoral dissertation, which deals with converting hydrocarbon fuel (say, methane) into a liquid (say, methanol) for much easier transportation from source to need. We dig into many details of experimentation, laboratory equipment, and even an unexpected side reaction. This was and is a popular topic among organometallic chemists since the 1980s.

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Published 2024-02-11

107: Transfermium Wars

24 min
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We now look at the controversies over discovery and rights to naming elements 104 to 109 in the 1960s to 1990s. The various laboratories included University of California--Berkeley, JINR at Dubna, and GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research in Darmstadt. There were arguments and spats over who discovered what, and what constitutes discovery. Eventually a Transfermium Working Group of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, along with the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics, came to referee the battle--and even that caused more problems.

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We now look at the controversies over discovery and rights to naming elements 104 to 109 in the 1960s to 1990s. The various laboratories included University of California--Berkeley, JINR at Dubna, and GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research in Darmstadt. There were arguments and spats over who discovered what, and what constitutes discovery. Eventually a Transfermium Working Group of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, along with the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics, came to referee the battle--and even that caused more problems.

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Published 2024-02-04

106: Natural Order of Things

25 min
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Through the 1960s up to the 1990s scientists learned how to read DNA's sequence of bases, first by handfuls, then faster and faster. Ray Wu learned to determine the order of a dozen or so bases in the late 1960s. The mid-70's brought Fred Sanger and Alan Coulson's "plus and minus" method, and the first viral DNA sequenced. We then talk of Maxam and Gilbert's method, Kary Mullis' polymerase chain reaction, and Alex Jeffrey's discovery of repetitive sequences. Semi-automatic sequencing arrived in the mid-1980s, and then the Human Genome Project was planned and begun by 1990.

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Through the 1960s up to the 1990s scientists learned how to read DNA's sequence of bases, first by handfuls, then faster and faster. Ray Wu learned to determine the order of a dozen or so bases in the late 1960s. The mid-70's brought Fred Sanger and Alan Coulson's "plus and minus" method, and the first viral DNA sequenced. We then talk of Maxam and Gilbert's method, Kary Mullis' polymerase chain reaction, and Alex Jeffrey's discovery of repetitive sequences. Semi-automatic sequencing arrived in the mid-1980s, and then the Human Genome Project was planned and begun by 1990.

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Published 2024-01-28

105: Safety First

22 min
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We talk of safety equipment in chemical laboratories: goggles, rubber (or non-rubber) gloves, fume hoods (or cupboards), eyewash stations, and lab coats. From there, we move to labeling of chemical containers, the Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labeling of Chemicals. Finally, we talk about the terrible case of Professor Karen Wetterhahn at Dartmouth, and the agony she underwent after being inadvertently poisoned in the laboratory.

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We talk of safety equipment in chemical laboratories: goggles, rubber (or non-rubber) gloves, fume hoods (or cupboards), eyewash stations, and lab coats. From there, we move to labeling of chemical containers, the Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labeling of Chemicals. Finally, we talk about the terrible case of Professor Karen Wetterhahn at Dartmouth, and the agony she underwent after being inadvertently poisoned in the laboratory.

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Published 2024-01-21

104: Inside Job

23 min
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This time we focus on how nuclear magnetic resonance evolved into a way to peer inside a living creature, that is, magnetic resonance imaging, or MRI. We start with early researchers from the 1950s and 1960s, Jay Singer, Erik Odeblad, and Raymond Damadian. Damadian actually patented a primitive method of MRI, but it didn't catch on. We then hear about Paul Lauterbur's work, then a race between Peter Mansfield and Ray Damadian to create the first live human image and full-body scan in the 1970s. The 1980s and 1990s saw the development of "contrast agents", mostly gadolinium compounds, to improve the image.

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This time we focus on how nuclear magnetic resonance evolved into a way to peer inside a living creature, that is, magnetic resonance imaging, or MRI. We start with early researchers from the 1950s and 1960s, Jay Singer, Erik Odeblad, and Raymond Damadian. Damadian actually patented a primitive method of MRI, but it didn't catch on. We then hear about Paul Lauterbur's work, then a race between Peter Mansfield and Ray Damadian to create the first live human image and full-body scan in the 1970s. The 1980s and 1990s saw the development of "contrast agents", mostly gadolinium compounds, to improve the image.

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Published 2024-01-14

103: It's Not Easy Being Green

21 min
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We learn about Green Chemistry, which began with the United States Pollution Prevention Act in 1990, and the Chemistry Council in the European Union's "Chemistry for a Cleaner World" at about the same time. A UN Treaty on moving hazardous wastes came into force in 1992, and then in the late 1990s, a series of formal principles for Green Chemistry were published. We talk about these twelve principles, and what they mean in practice.

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We learn about Green Chemistry, which began with the United States Pollution Prevention Act in 1990, and the Chemistry Council in the European Union's "Chemistry for a Cleaner World" at about the same time. A UN Treaty on moving hazardous wastes came into force in 1992, and then in the late 1990s, a series of formal principles for Green Chemistry were published. We talk about these twelve principles, and what they mean in practice.

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Published 2024-01-07

102: Chemical Philosophy

22 min
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This episode takes a bit of a sidestep: instead of actual chemistry, we discuss the philosophy of chemistry, which underwent a revival in the 1980s and 1990s. We talk about the "ultimate units" of chemistry, what exactly does chemistry study, how chemistry is different from other sciences, what is a chemical bond, and what is a reaction mechanism. All of these topics are argued about by chemical philosophers--even as chemists go blithely on, doing whatever it is chemists do.

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This episode takes a bit of a sidestep: instead of actual chemistry, we discuss the philosophy of chemistry, which underwent a revival in the 1980s and 1990s. We talk about the "ultimate units" of chemistry, what exactly does chemistry study, how chemistry is different from other sciences, what is a chemical bond, and what is a reaction mechanism. All of these topics are argued about by chemical philosophers--even as chemists go blithely on, doing whatever it is chemists do.

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Published 2023-12-31

101: Totally Tubular

22 min
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We examine the history of carbon nanotubes, starting with Sumio Iijima in 1990. Or maybe Howard Tennett. Or maybe A.M. Nesterenko, N.F. Kolesnik, Yu.S. Akhmatov, V.I. Suhomlin, and O.V. Prilutskii, or maybe John Abrahamson, Peter Wiles, and Brian Rhoades. Or maybe others. Whoever it was, we then look at what mechanical, electrical, and optical properties are so interesting about nanotubes, then some practical applications for them.

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We examine the history of carbon nanotubes, starting with Sumio Iijima in 1990. Or maybe Howard Tennett. Or maybe A.M. Nesterenko, N.F. Kolesnik, Yu.S. Akhmatov, V.I. Suhomlin, and O.V. Prilutskii, or maybe John Abrahamson, Peter Wiles, and Brian Rhoades. Or maybe others. Whoever it was, we then look at what mechanical, electrical, and optical properties are so interesting about nanotubes, then some practical applications for them.

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Published 2023-12-24

100: I Have the Power

32 min
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To celebrate our 100th episode, we have an extended discussion on the history of lithium batteries, which power so many of our portable electronic devices today. Our story starts in 1800, when Jozé Bonifácio de Andralda e Silva found a new mineral near Stockholm, which he called petalite. Lithium batteries, however only began with the great American chemist, Gilbert Lewis, in 1913. We follow the trail through the 1960s and 1970s in Japan, Britain, Germany, and the United States, and the multiple inventors, each devising a piece of the modern lithium battery. Become a Patreon supporter, and download a supplemental sheet with several diagrams for your edification.

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To celebrate our 100th episode, we have an extended discussion on the history of lithium batteries, which power so many of our portable electronic devices today. Our story starts in 1800, when Jozé Bonifácio de Andralda e Silva found a new mineral near Stockholm, which he called petalite. Lithium batteries, however only began with the great American chemist, Gilbert Lewis, in 1913. We follow the trail through the 1960s and 1970s in Japan, Britain, Germany, and the United States, and the multiple inventors, each devising a piece of the modern lithium battery. Become a Patreon supporter, and download a supplemental sheet with several diagrams for your edification.

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Published 2023-12-17

99: Lite Brite

23 min
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This episode covers the developments in inorganic LEDS in the 1980s and 1990s, including higher-brightness LEDs suitable for car brake lights and traffic signals, and especially practical blue LEDs. We discuss the first white LEDs as well. 

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This episode covers the developments in inorganic LEDS in the 1980s and 1990s, including higher-brightness LEDs suitable for car brake lights and traffic signals, and especially practical blue LEDs. We discuss the first white LEDs as well. 

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Published 2023-12-10

98: Surface Chemistry

22 min
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For this episode I discuss my doctoral dissertation as an example of real research into surface chemistry in the early 1990s. We examine the structure of a germanium surface, and then see what happens when we add small molecules to that surface. I talk about the special apparatus required to observe a clean germanium surface, as well as what it means to get a Ph.D. in chemistry. Download a supplemental sheet with some images showing structures I discuss in this episode.

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For this episode I discuss my doctoral dissertation as an example of real research into surface chemistry in the early 1990s. We examine the structure of a germanium surface, and then see what happens when we add small molecules to that surface. I talk about the special apparatus required to observe a clean germanium surface, as well as what it means to get a Ph.D. in chemistry. Download a supplemental sheet with some images showing structures I discuss in this episode.

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Published 2023-12-03

97: Moving Atoms

22 min
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Richard Feynman gave a lecture in 1959 on atomic ultraminiaturization.  We learn about Donald Eigler and Erhard Schweizer's work in 1989 to make that dream come true: moving individual atoms in a deliberate way on a surface. Then we hear of Eigler, Michael Crommie, and Christopher Lutz's continuation of this process to show quantum effects. Wilson Ho went even further and was able to detect spectroscopic differences between individual molecules.  We advance to hear of seeing electron orbitals, and then the smallest movie set ever.

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Richard Feynman gave a lecture in 1959 on atomic ultraminiaturization.  We learn about Donald Eigler and Erhard Schweizer's work in 1989 to make that dream come true: moving individual atoms in a deliberate way on a surface. Then we hear of Eigler, Michael Crommie, and Christopher Lutz's continuation of this process to show quantum effects. Wilson Ho went even further and was able to detect spectroscopic differences between individual molecules.  We advance to hear of seeing electron orbitals, and then the smallest movie set ever.

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Published 2023-11-26

96: Journal Square

23 min
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We hear of the evolution of chemical communications, how chemists tell other chemists of their research, starting with Henry Oldenburg in 1665, who published summaries of Royal Society meetings. We learn of the first truly chemical journals in the 1780s, the splitting into chemical subdivisions, private chemical journals, and then journals published by chemical societies. Finally, we also talk about what constitutes a professional chemical communication, and the types of chemical communications.

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We hear of the evolution of chemical communications, how chemists tell other chemists of their research, starting with Henry Oldenburg in 1665, who published summaries of Royal Society meetings. We learn of the first truly chemical journals in the 1780s, the splitting into chemical subdivisions, private chemical journals, and then journals published by chemical societies. Finally, we also talk about what constitutes a professional chemical communication, and the types of chemical communications.

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Published 2023-11-19

95: Plastic Love

24 min
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New polymers were still being invented or commercialized in the 1980s, so we mention some of the most important 1980s polymers: biaxially-oriented polypropylene; high-modulus polyethylene (trade name Dyneema); microfiber (Ultrasuede or Alcantara); poly(p-phenylene-2,6-benzobisoxazole) (Zylon); Technora; Vectran; and Zenite. We discuss some of the properties that make these polymers so attractive. If you become my sponsor on Patreon, you can download a supplemental sheet with molecular structures of some of these polymers.

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New polymers were still being invented or commercialized in the 1980s, so we mention some of the most important 1980s polymers: biaxially-oriented polypropylene; high-modulus polyethylene (trade name Dyneema); microfiber (Ultrasuede or Alcantara); poly(p-phenylene-2,6-benzobisoxazole) (Zylon); Technora; Vectran; and Zenite. We discuss some of the properties that make these polymers so attractive. If you become my sponsor on Patreon, you can download a supplemental sheet with molecular structures of some of these polymers.

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Published 2023-11-12

94: Grape Expectations

24 min
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We hear about the chemistry behind winemaking, especially the discovery that a fungus generates the alcohol. Then there are the other residues from the grapes that help to shape a wine's special flavor. The final component we talk about is the sugar that feeds the yeast, but also adds a sweetness to the wine. We also hear about two serious European scandals that rocked wineries in Austria and Italy in the mid-1980s.

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We hear about the chemistry behind winemaking, especially the discovery that a fungus generates the alcohol. Then there are the other residues from the grapes that help to shape a wine's special flavor. The final component we talk about is the sugar that feeds the yeast, but also adds a sweetness to the wine. We also hear about two serious European scandals that rocked wineries in Austria and Italy in the mid-1980s.

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Published 2023-11-05

93: Resistance is Futile

24 min
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We hear of events from the early 19th century onward that led to the discovery of high-temperature superconductivity in the 1980s. Surprisingly, it all started with Humphry Davy and his assistant, Michael Faraday, and continued with a competition between Kamerlingh Onnes and James Dewar over who could liquefy hydrogen first. After that, Onnes turned to the idea of finding evidence for condensation of newly discovered electron fluids. The competition in the 1980s for high-temperature superconductivity was a race between Paul Chu in Houston, IBM Zürich, and Bell Labs.

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We hear of events from the early 19th century onward that led to the discovery of high-temperature superconductivity in the 1980s. Surprisingly, it all started with Humphry Davy and his assistant, Michael Faraday, and continued with a competition between Kamerlingh Onnes and James Dewar over who could liquefy hydrogen first. After that, Onnes turned to the idea of finding evidence for condensation of newly discovered electron fluids. The competition in the 1980s for high-temperature superconductivity was a race between Paul Chu in Houston, IBM Zürich, and Bell Labs.

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Published 2023-10-29

92: Infinite Loop

22 min
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Recycling became common in the 1980s, and we learn why. We also learn of the seven different types of plastic in the recycling world, why they need to be sorted by type for recycling, and how (and even if) they can be recycled. 

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Recycling became common in the 1980s, and we learn why. We also learn of the seven different types of plastic in the recycling world, why they need to be sorted by type for recycling, and how (and even if) they can be recycled. 

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Published 2023-10-22

91: In the Air Tonight

22 min
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Atmospheric environmental chemistry in the 1980s is today's topic. First is Jonathan Shanklin and his discovery of the ozone hole, which led in a very short time to the Montreal Protocol, perhaps the most successful international treaty ever. Second we hear about Guy Callendar's and Charles Keeling's research showing how carbon dioxide we put into the atmosphere causes global warming--and how major petrochemical companies lied and gaslit the public in the 1980s about it.

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Atmospheric environmental chemistry in the 1980s is today's topic. First is Jonathan Shanklin and his discovery of the ozone hole, which led in a very short time to the Montreal Protocol, perhaps the most successful international treaty ever. Second we hear about Guy Callendar's and Charles Keeling's research showing how carbon dioxide we put into the atmosphere causes global warming--and how major petrochemical companies lied and gaslit the public in the 1980s about it.

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Published 2023-10-15

90: Computerwelt

22 min
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This episode focuses on the entry of computers into the chemical laboratory, which began in tiny doses in 1948, but expanded in the 1960s with the LINC at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, a forerunner of the PC. We talk also of the growth of computers used to calculate and model molecular structures, from the 1950s use with x ray crystallography and some ab initio calculations, through semi-empirical calculations in 1965 and early computer graphics. The 1960s saw the introduction of the Cooley-Tukey fast-Fourier transform (FFT) for quick spectroscopy, which led to dedicated FFT spectrometers by the 1970s. Microcomputers became a part of computer laboratories in the 1970s and 1980s, from electrochemistry to analytical chemistry, and the very beginnings of computerized automation. And thus began the computer revolution in the laboratory in the 1980s.

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This episode focuses on the entry of computers into the chemical laboratory, which began in tiny doses in 1948, but expanded in the 1960s with the LINC at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, a forerunner of the PC. We talk also of the growth of computers used to calculate and model molecular structures, from the 1950s use with x ray crystallography and some ab initio calculations, through semi-empirical calculations in 1965 and early computer graphics. The 1960s saw the introduction of the Cooley-Tukey fast-Fourier transform (FFT) for quick spectroscopy, which led to dedicated FFT spectrometers by the 1970s. Microcomputers became a part of computer laboratories in the 1970s and 1980s, from electrochemistry to analytical chemistry, and the very beginnings of computerized automation. And thus began the computer revolution in the laboratory in the 1980s.

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Published 2023-10-08

89: Pathological Science

26 min
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This episode is all about chemical examples of "pathological science," as Irving Langmuir called it, "the science of things that aren't so." We hear of the six symptoms of pathological science, then we learn of three examples of pathological chemistry: polywater, promoted by Boris Deryagin, from the 1960s and early 1970s; memory water, promoted by Jacques Benveniste, from 1988, and its close cousin, homeopathy; and finally cold fusion, promoted by Martin Fleischmann and Stanley Pons in 1989. 

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This episode is all about chemical examples of "pathological science," as Irving Langmuir called it, "the science of things that aren't so." We hear of the six symptoms of pathological science, then we learn of three examples of pathological chemistry: polywater, promoted by Boris Deryagin, from the 1960s and early 1970s; memory water, promoted by Jacques Benveniste, from 1988, and its close cousin, homeopathy; and finally cold fusion, promoted by Martin Fleischmann and Stanley Pons in 1989. 

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Published 2023-10-02

88: Contamination

22 min
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We continue on the path of environmental chemistry, with several egregious examples of pollution in the 1980s. First is the story of Times Beach, Missouri, USA, its contamination, discovery, and evacuation. Second is the Union Carbide plant in Bhopal, India, which had structural weaknesses leading to an explosion blanketing the city with toxic gas. Third is the explosion of the nuclear reactor in Chornobyl, Ukraine, and the spread of radioactive elements across the area and much of northern Europe.

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We continue on the path of environmental chemistry, with several egregious examples of pollution in the 1980s. First is the story of Times Beach, Missouri, USA, its contamination, discovery, and evacuation. Second is the Union Carbide plant in Bhopal, India, which had structural weaknesses leading to an explosion blanketing the city with toxic gas. Third is the explosion of the nuclear reactor in Chornobyl, Ukraine, and the spread of radioactive elements across the area and much of northern Europe.

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Published 2023-09-24

87: Charge It Up

23 min
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We hear of an unusual idea that appeared in the 1970s: that metals can become anions and gain electrons! These are the alkalide compounds, first discovered in 1974. Such compounds are anions of the alkaline metals, often combined with crown ethers. The second, related topic in this episode is that of solvated electrons, where electrons sit in the spaces between molecules. These compounds are the electrides. Finally, we touch on ionic liquids--not water, but liquids that are primarily ionic in nature, at or near room temperature. All of these topics ramped up in research popularity in the 1970s and 1980s.  Become a Patreon supporter, so you may download a supplemental sheet with diagrams of some of the molecules I discuss in this episode.

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We hear of an unusual idea that appeared in the 1970s: that metals can become anions and gain electrons! These are the alkalide compounds, first discovered in 1974. Such compounds are anions of the alkaline metals, often combined with crown ethers. The second, related topic in this episode is that of solvated electrons, where electrons sit in the spaces between molecules. These compounds are the electrides. Finally, we touch on ionic liquids--not water, but liquids that are primarily ionic in nature, at or near room temperature. All of these topics ramped up in research popularity in the 1970s and 1980s.  Become a Patreon supporter, so you may download a supplemental sheet with diagrams of some of the molecules I discuss in this episode.

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Published 2023-09-17

86: Turnabout is Fair Play

24 min
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We turn to an oddity in the world of chemistry that became more widely known in the 1980s: non-equilibrium thermodynamics, and especially oscillating reactions. A couple of examples were known in the 19th century, but the first model for how such reactions might go was created by Alfred Lotka and Vito Volterra early in the 20th century. We hear about Liebhafsky and Bray's oscillating reaction, and then Boris Belousov's reaction, studied further by Anatol Zhabotinsky. Around this time, Ilya Prigogine also started to research the general topic of non-equilibrium thermodynamics, which helps to explain such oscillating reactions. By the 1960s and 1970s, scientists began explaining the Belousov-Zhabotinsky reaction via the Brusselator, FKN, and Oregonator mechanisms. We end with the first attempts to devise new oscillating reactions, and how these reactions help to explain fingerprints, zebra stripes, leopard spots, and other biological structures. Become my Patreon supporter, and download a supplemental sheet with diagrams of some of the topics I discuss.

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We turn to an oddity in the world of chemistry that became more widely known in the 1980s: non-equilibrium thermodynamics, and especially oscillating reactions. A couple of examples were known in the 19th century, but the first model for how such reactions might go was created by Alfred Lotka and Vito Volterra early in the 20th century. We hear about Liebhafsky and Bray's oscillating reaction, and then Boris Belousov's reaction, studied further by Anatol Zhabotinsky. Around this time, Ilya Prigogine also started to research the general topic of non-equilibrium thermodynamics, which helps to explain such oscillating reactions. By the 1960s and 1970s, scientists began explaining the Belousov-Zhabotinsky reaction via the Brusselator, FKN, and Oregonator mechanisms. We end with the first attempts to devise new oscillating reactions, and how these reactions help to explain fingerprints, zebra stripes, leopard spots, and other biological structures. Become my Patreon supporter, and download a supplemental sheet with diagrams of some of the topics I discuss.

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