The Science of Everything Podcast

In the second and final part of this series, I discuss the major consequences of special relativity, including the relativity of simultaneity, time dilation, length contraction, and mass-energy equivalence. I then provide an overview of some of the experimental tests of special relativity, and conclude with an analysis of some alleged paradoxes in relativity, including the twins paradox, and the ladder paradox. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 114: Special Relativity Part 1.

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The first of a two part series on special relativity, I provide a brief overview of the historical development of relativity theory, including a discussion of the role of the Michelson-Morley experiment, and considerations from classical electromagnetism. I then outline Einstein's two postulates, discuss their meaning, and provide some explanation for how to interpret a constant speed of light. I also provide an introduction to Lorentz transformations and the notion of spacetime. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 13: Newtonian Mechanics.

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I discuss the methods and results of my Master's Thesis, in which I analysed electrophysiological data of the mouse visual system using a variety of statistical and computational techniques. I consider some of the major research questions addressed in my work, including population encoding, stimulus representation, neural network modelling, and state space modelling of information transformation. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 113: Visual Processing.

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A discussion of higher-order processing of information in the visual system, including an overview of how the brain extracts edges and basic shapes from simple stimuli in the retina, how motion is detected, how parts of objects are distinguished, how object recognition occurs, and the differences between grandmother cell and distributed processing theories of neural encoding. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 47: Vision Part III.

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An overview of the field of microbiology, beginning with a brief history of the discipline, and then proceeding through a summary of the structure and function of various microbial life forms, including protists, yeasts, bacteria, archaea, viruses, and prions. The episode concludes with a discussion of microbial growth and methods to reduce it. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 10: The Cell.

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An introduction to the theory of plate tectonics, beginning with an overview of the internal structure of Earth, the differences between oceanic and continental crust, subduction and other forms of plate boundaries, the formation of volcanic arcs, the origin of the Earth's magnetic field, and the mechanisms underlying tectonic plate movement. The episode concludes with a summary of the varies lines of evidence in favour of continental drift, including seafloor spread, biogeography, and polar wandering. Recommended prelistening is Episode 74: Minerals and Rocks.

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Building on the basic concepts discussed in the previous episode, this episode examines the formation and development of a wide range of weather phenomena, including air fronts, midlatitude cyclones, tropical cyclones, thunderstorms, and tornadoes. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 109: Weather Part I.

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An introduction to key concepts relevant to understanding weather, including relative and absolute humidity, atmospheric stability, cloud formation and classification, types of precipitation, and the formation and classification of air masses. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 90: Climate Systems.

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In this sixth and final part in our series on economic growth and development, I discuss in more detail some of the key institutions necessary for economic growth to begin, focusing on property rights, enforcement of contracts, and control of corruption. I review the importance of these institutions in the context of historical case studies of countries ranging from the Soviet Union to Mexico, and outline how the most critical institutions vary with the level of development, giving rise to a middle income trap. I also discuss the Washington Consensus and critically analyse the arguments of critics that such institutional reform is not essential for growth. I conclude with a summary of all we have learned and discussed throughout the growth series. The recommended pre-listening is Episode 107: Economic Growth and Development Part V.

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In this fifth part of our series on economic growth and development, I examine the major factors that have been advanced as explaining differences in growth outcomes between countries. I provide a summary of the arguments and evidence for and against the importance of culture, dependency, democracy, geography, education, and institutions in accounting for differential growth outcomes, and conclude with a comparative empirical analysis in which I argue that institutional differences explain the majority of growth differences. The Recommended pre-listening is Episode 106: Economic Growth and Development Part IV.

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In this fourth part of our series on economic growth and development, I outline the major theories of economic development developed over the past sixty years. I trace the development of such theories beginning with the Harrod-Domar theory, and proceeding through the Solow-Swan model, the Ramsey model, Romer's spillovers model, and endogenous growth theory, in each case discussing their key features, and analysing their strengths and weaknesses. The episode concludes with a brief survey of a range of more recent growth models focusing on modelling coordination failures and poverty traps, emphasising the work of Daron Acemoglu on economic institutions. The Recommended pre-listening is Episode 105: Economic Growth and Development Part III.

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Astrophysicist Mario Livio joins me to discuss his latest book 'Galileo and the Science Deniers', which chronicles the scientific discoveries of Galileo Galilei and how his advocacy of the heliocentric theory led him into confrontation with the Pope. Our conversation covers the significance of Galileo's discovers, the strengths and weaknesses of his case for the heliocentric theory, his role in establishing the modern scientific method, and what we can learn from this episode in history about the importance of intellectual freedom and science communication in the present day.

Check out Mario's book on Amazon.

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In this third part of the series on economic growth, I discuss the process of structural change as economies progress from underdeveloped to developed, beginning with an overview and historical analysis of Rostow's Stages of Growth model. I then discuss the structures of agricultural production around the world, focusing on barriers to adoption of more modern agricultural techniques and proposed reforms, such as adoption of cash crops, land reform, and improving the security of land tenure. I conclude with an analysis of the benefits and problems associated with urbanisation, incorporating a discussion of agglomeration economies, spillover effects, urban gigantism, and the informal urban sector. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 104: Economic Growth and Development Part II.

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In the second part of our series on economic growth and development, I provide a brief history of the world economy, beginning with the key features of premodern economies and the Malthusian trap. I then outline critical developments and points of debate in subsequent economic history, including the Great Divergence, the First and Second Industrial Revolutions, the Great Depression and era of central planning, the Bretton Woods era and the gold standard, and the modern period of neoliberalism and globalisation. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 103: Economic Growth and Development Part I.

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In this the first in an eight-part series covering the causes of economic growth and development, I provide an introduction to the key concepts of absolute and relative poverty, different theories of development, and how GDP is defined and measured. I also discuss the differences between rural and urban poverty, give an overview of the different levels of development of various countries around the world, and outline some of the major methodological challenges in studying causes of economic growth around the world. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 12: The Price System, and Episode 56: The Gains from Trade.

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Continuing the discussion of photosynthesis from the previous episode, here I outline the importance of the oxygen evolving complex in oxidising water molecules, the importance of photosystem I in extracting additional energy, and the role of light-independent reactions of the Calvin cycle in carrying out carbon fixation. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 101: Photosynthesis Part I.

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An overview of photosynthesis, including the structure of chloroplasts, phototransduction of energy by chlorophyll, the macromolecular complexes of the thylakoid membrane. I also discuss the mechanisms of electron transfer along the electron transport chain, and the role of ATP synthase in generating ATP. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 75: Cellular Respiration, Episode 32: Light and Optics, and Episode 18: Biochemistry Basics.

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A special episode in which I discuss some of the ideas and principles behind the production of the show, sources I use for episodes, and my motivations for starting the podcast. I also talk about my own background and research interests, my thoughts about the relationship between science and philosophy, and some ideas for the future of the Science of Everything Podcast.

In this special celebratory 100th episode, I discuss six major unsolved problems in science: the P vs NP problem in computer science, the mystery of dark matter in physics, the existence of the island of stability in chemistry, the historical occurrence of a snowball Earth scenario from geology, the protein folding problem from biochemistry, and the origin of the Cambrian explosion in evolutionary biology. I also discuss some important ideas relating to the future of the podcast.

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A discussion of the method of reproduction of flowering plants, including an overview of the structure and function of the different components of the flower, pollination, double fertilisation, and seed formation, dispersal, and germination. I also discuss the different types of fruit and vegetables and how the different components of the plant relate to the parts that we consume. I conclude with a brief overview of non-edible plant products, including fibres, resin, and sap. Recommended prerequisite is Episode 97: Plant Structure and Function.

An overview of the nature and properties of electromagnetic radiation, including a discussion of the electromagnetic spectrum, the nature of photons, the speed of light, near and far field radiation, and technological applications of electromagnetic radiation in AM and FM radiation and microwave ovens. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 61: Magnetism and Episode 57: Electric Current and Circuits.

An overview of the basic morphology and physiology of plants, including a discussion of the main types of plants, stems, roots, leaves, plant transport, meristems, plant nutrition, and plant sensory systems.

In this special episode I am joined by Jared Bauer, cofounder of Wisecrack, to discuss science and philosophy in movies and popular culture. We cover a range of topics including how science is portrayed in movies, how the film medium leads to science and history being presented in particular ways, and how movies and popular culture can be used as a vehicle for promoting scientific and philosophical inquiry.

In the final episode of our series on computers, I give an introduction to high-level programming languages, how they relate to assembly language and machine code, and how the compiler converts high level programs into a form that can be executed by the processor. I then outline some of the key components to high-level programming, such as data structures, control structures, and algorithms, before sketching an example implementation of a simple game. I conclude with an integrative summary of computer structure from silicon up to the operating system.

In this the fifth episode of the series 'how computers work', I begin with a summary of some of the major methods of improving the performance of the central processing unit, including pipelining, cache memory, branch prediction, and parallel processing. Following a brief introduction to assembly langague and its relationship to the machine code, I then discuss the operating system and how it interfaces with the hardware to manage program memory, system calls, input/output, and processes.

In this fourth part in our series on computers, I begin with an overview of the von Neumann architecture used in most modern computers. This leads in a discussion of the structure and operation of the central processing unit, covering the instruction register, the program counter, main memory, the data and address buses, the ALU, and the control Unit. I then discuss the purpose and implementation of a number of key operations in the instruction set architecture, including arithmetic operations, data movement operations, and conditional branches.

In this third part of the series on computers I begin with an overview of Boolean algebra, including a discussion of key logic functions such as NOT, AND, and OR, and also discuss how CMOS logic gates implementing these functions are fabricated from transistors. I then survey the wide variety of logic components used in electronic circuits, including the multiplexor, adder, tristate buffer, flip-flops, comparator, and clock generator, and discuss the functions fulfilled by these devices in modern computers.

In this second episode in the series, I explain binary digital coding to motivate a discussion of the operation of transistors. Beginning with an examination of the properties of semiconductors and why they are useful for constructing transistors, I then examine how MOSFET transistors are constructed by combining pMOS and nMOS semiconductors.

We begin our series discussing how computers work with an overview of the theory of computation, including a discussion of Turing machines and Turing completeness, and a brief history of early analog and digital computers. I also provide an introduction to the key components of a modern computer, and review the different levels in the hierarchy of computer organisation.

An analysis of the major factors influencing climactic variation over Earth's surface, including a discussion of the effect of differential heating at different latitudes, the impact of continentality and sea breezes, the causes of monsoons, the coriolis effect, atmospheric circulation cells, the jet streams, and thermohaline circulation currents in Earth's oceans. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 88: Cartography and Earths Seasons, and Episode 89: The Atmosphere.

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An overview of the composition and layers of the Earth's atmosphere, including a discussion of the exosphere, thermosphere, mesosphere, stratosphere, and troposphere. I also discuss the ozone layer and ozone depletion, the Karman line which marks the boundary of space, and the ionosphere. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 42: Gases and Gas Laws.

A discussion of the shape of the Earth and the difficulties and conventions involved in describing a three-dimensional surface on a two-dimensional map, including an overview of some of the major map projections and their various limitations. This leads in to an overview of Earth's axial tilt and variation in solar insolation by latitude as an explanation for the seasonal variation in weather across the planet. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 87: The Geography of Planet Earth.

An overview of some of the key geographic features of planet Earth, including a discussion of the concept and classification of continents, the major mountain ranges and major river basins around the planet. I also discuss the major world biomes, their major climactic and botanical features, and their relative locations across the Earth.

An outline of the various lines of evidence in favour of the theory of evolution by natural selection, including a discussion of natural and artificial examples of natural selection in action, as well as a review of the evidence from the fossil record, comparative anatomy, biogeography, and molecular evidence. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 21: Introduction to Evolution.

A discussion of some of the major conceptual aspects of Quantum Field Theory, including the concept of a quantum field, classical field theory, harmonic oscillators, second quantisation, interacting theories, and the relationship of QFT to other branches of physics. Recommended pre-listening is Episodes 83 and 84, Advanced Quantum Mechanics parts I and II.

Continuing on from the previous episode, here I discuss some more advanced topics in Quantum Mechanics, including Noether’s theorem, the particle statistics of Bosons and Fermions, perturbation theory, and the EPR paradox. Recommended Pre-listening is Episode 83: Advanced Quantum Mechanics Part I.

An examination of some more advanced concepts of quantum mechanics, focusing on describing Dirac's bra-ket formulation of quantum theory. I discuss the formulation of quantum mechanics in terms of vectors in Hilbert spaces, Hermitian operators as corresponding to observables, orthogonality of eigenstates, incompatible observables, and Schrodinger's equation. Recommeded pre-listening is Episode 14: Principles of Quantum Mechanics.

A discussion of the evidence and methodological issues pertaining to explaining the causes of racial differences in intelligence, with a focus on evaluating the hereditarian hypothesis that such differences are largely genetic. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 81: Intelligence Part 2.

Continuing the series on intelligence, in this episode I discuss the genetic and neurological correlated of intelligences, the efficacy of measures to increase intelligence, and the causes and consequences of the Flynn effect. Also includes an analysis of the heritability of intelligence and how to properly interpret heritabilty research. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 80: Intelligence Part 1.

The first in a three part series on human intelligence, covering debates about the definition of intelligence, how intelligence is measured, factor analysis and the origin of the g factor, and interpretations of the g factor as corresponding to intelligence. Also includes an analysis of Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences, and the cross-cultural validity of intelligence tests. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 79: Basic Concepts in Statistics.

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A concise introduction to key concepts of statistics, explained in as clear a manner as possible. Includes a discussion of key concepts of probability, types of statistical data, sampling methods, the difference between descriptive and inferential statistics, statistical significance, and p-values. I conclude with a brief look at three common statistical tests; the chi-square test, t-test, and linear regression.

An explanation of the process of human hearing, covering the structure and function of the outer, middle, and inner ears, with a focus on explaining how the hair cells of the cochlea transduce mechanical motion into electrical signals that are interpreted as sound. I also discuss the mechanisms of sound localisation, some of the causes of deafness, and briefly outline the workings of the cochlea implant. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 53: Sound and Music.

An introduction to the physics of protons and neutrons in the atomic nucleus, with a focus on explaining the different modes of radioactivity, alpha, beta, and gamma decay, as well as different ways of measuring radiation and some of its biological effects. I also discuss some applications of radioactivity in radiometric dating, radiotherapy, nuclear power, and nuclear weapons. I conclude by discussing a few popular misconceptions about radioactivity. Recommending prelistening is Episode 8: History of the Atom.

An introduction to the economic concepts of GDP (Gross Domestic Product) and unemployment, including a discussion of how these concepts are defined, how they are measured, their relevance to understanding economic activity, and some limitations of these concepts as they are currently employed. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 65: Inflation and Interest Rates.

An overview of the processes involved in the generation of energy in cells, including a discussion of the role of ATP in energy storage, glycolysis, the krebs cycle, oxidative phosphorylation, and ATP synthase. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 18: Biochemistry Basics.

A discussion of minerals, including their main properties such as crystal structure, habit, cleavage, lustre, and hardness, followed by a brief overview of some of the major mineral classes, with a focus on the various types of silicate minerals. I also discuss the rock cycle and the relationship between the three major types of rocks: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. 

Continuing on from the previous episode, I discuss the role of antibodies and antigens in mediating adaptive immunity, and follow with a discussion of the functions and roles of B-cells and T-cells. I conclude the episode with an overview of the many components of the immune system and a discussion of how they interact to protect the body from pathogens. Recommended prelistening is Episode 72: Introduction to the Immune System Part I.

An overview of the human immune system, beginning with some basic anatomy of the lymphatic system, and proceeding through a discussion of the distinction between the innate and adaptive immune systems, the role of skin and mucus membranes in providing barriers to pathogen entry, the inflammatory response, an overview of the different types of leukocytes, and an initial foray into the workings of the complement system. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 10: The Cell.

A social scientific discussion and comparison of some of the major political ideologies in the world today, beginning with an overview of the origins, meaning, and limitations of the 'left-right' political spectrum, and continuing with an analysis of the historical origin and key beliefs of conservatism, liberalism, socialism, communism, anarchism, fascism, and other nationalist movements.

Continuing from Episode 69, I explore the diversity of the mammals, looking at all the mammalian orders and their major families. Special focus is given to primates and particularly hominids, which are discussed at the species level.

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